Beyond the Bones

What Denmark's Ancient Kitchen Middens Reveal About Stone Age Survival

Exploring the scientific legacy of 19th-century researchers who first calculated midden accumulation time and reconstructed biological food sources of Early Stone Age Denmark.

A Window into Prehistoric Life

Imagine stumbling upon a heap of ancient seashells, animal bones, and discarded tools, weathered by thousands of years. To the untrained eye, it might seem like nothing more than a pile of garbage. But to archaeologists, such mounds are priceless archives—the kitchen middens of Denmark's Early Stone Age that hold secrets to how our ancestors lived, ate, and thrived.

Midden Composition Analysis

These prehistoric refuse heaps, some stretching hundreds of meters, represent the earliest environmental studies ever conducted, where 19th-century scientists first developed methods to calculate how long these sites took to accumulate and reconstruct the biological food sources that sustained ancient communities 1 .

The study of kitchen middens represents nothing less than the birth of ecological archaeology. When 19th-century Danish researchers began examining these mounds, they initiated a scientific revolution that would forever change our understanding of prehistoric life 1 . This article explores the fascinating science behind analyzing these ancient garbage dumps—from the pioneering work of researchers like Steenstrup and Worsaae to cutting-edge techniques that continue to reveal surprising insights about the Stone Age diet, challenging even our modern conceptions of what it means to eat "primitive."

Key Concepts: The Ertebølle Culture and Midden Formation

The story of Denmark's kitchen middens is intrinsically linked to the Ertebølle culture (approximately 5400-3950 BCE), the last hunter-gatherer-fisher communities of prehistoric Denmark before the arrival of agriculture 1 . These coastal people left behind the most extensive and informative middens in the region, which have become focal points for understanding the transition from foraging to farming.

Midden Formation

These mounds are essentially prehistoric garbage dumps containing layers of discarded food remains, tools, hearth ashes, and other settlement debris.

  • Shell Composition: Mostly oysters and mussels, indicating specialized collection from rich coastal beds
  • Bone Preservation: The alkaline environment from crushed shells perfectly preserves bone material
  • Cultural Layers: Interspersed layers of shells, bones, and hearth remains suggest seasonal or periodic occupation
  • Tool Assemblages: Associated finds include fishing gear, hunting weapons, and food processing tools
Scientific Pioneers

The scientific importance of these sites was first recognized in the mid-19th century when J.J.S. Steenstrup, J.G. Forchhammer, and J.J.A. Worsaae conducted systematic studies that would lay the foundation for modern archaeology 1 .

J.J.S. Steenstrup

Identified middens as human-created deposits

J.J.A. Worsaae

Developed chronological framework for Stone Age

C.G. Johannes Peterson

Calculated midden accumulation time

19th Century Danish Researchers and Their Contributions

Researcher Contribution Significance
J.J.S. Steenstrup Identified middens as human-created deposits Established archaeological context for subsistence studies
J.J.A. Worsaae Developed chronological framework for Stone Age Created first relative dating method for prehistoric sites
C.G. Johannes Peterson Calculated midden accumulation time Pioneered quantitative approach to archaeological formation

The Science of Dating Middens: How Time Is Calculated

A central question for 19th-century archaeologists was determining how long it took for these substantial middens to accumulate. The pioneering work "Means of Calculating the Time of Accumulation of Kitchen Middens" by C.G. Johannes Peterson represented one of the first systematic attempts to address this question through quantitative methods 1 7 .

Early Dating Methods
  • Stratigraphic Analysis: Examining the sequence and thickness of deposition layers
  • Volume Calculations: Estimating total volume of shell material
  • Seasonal Indicators: Analyzing growth rings in shells and tooth eruption patterns
Modern Advancements
  • Radiocarbon Dating: More precise chronological frameworks
  • AMS Dating: Dating individual shells and bones
  • Refined Timelines: Major middens accumulated over centuries rather than millennia

Midden Accumulation Timeline

These methods, while revolutionary for their time, contained significant limitations. Early calculations didn't fully account for variables like population fluctuations, changing consumption patterns, or the possibility that not all food remains ended up in the midden. Nevertheless, they established a framework for thinking systematically about archaeological site formation processes.

Modern radiocarbon dating has refined our understanding considerably, revealing that major Danish middens accumulated over centuries rather than millennia, with the Ertebølle period lasting approximately 1,500 years before the transition to agriculture around 3950 BCE 1 . The development of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating now allows scientists to date individual shells and bones, providing much more precise chronological frameworks for these sites.

Reconstructing the Stone Age Diet: A Biological Perspective

The second part of Peterson's work—"Food Sources in Denmark during the Early Stone Age: a biological study"—represents an equally important scientific contribution: the systematic reconstruction of prehistoric diets from biological remains 1 . This approach was groundbreaking in its interdisciplinary methodology, combining zoology, botany, and geology to paint a comprehensive picture of Stone Age subsistence.

Marine Resources

Shellfish (especially oysters), fish (cod, flatfish), marine mammals (seals, porpoises), and seabirds

Terrestrial Game

Red deer, wild boar, roe deer, aurochs, and small mammals

Plant Foods

Hazelnuts, acorns, roots, wild berries (raspberries, blackberries), and various leafy greens 2

Stone Age Diet Composition

Major Food Categories in the Early Stone Age Danish Diet

Food Category Specific Examples Archaeological Evidence
Shellfish Oysters, mussels, cockles Shell layers in middens
Fish Cod, flatfish, herring Bone fragments, fishing gear
Marine Mammals Seals, porpoises, whales Bones, harpoon points
Land Mammals Red deer, wild boar, aurochs Butchered bones, antler tools
Plants Hazelnuts, roots, berries Charred remains, pollen

Recent analyses have overturned several assumptions about Stone Age foodways. Contrary to the modern "Paleo diet" myth of a carbohydrate-free existence, Stone Age hunters gladly ate carbs when available, including root vegetables and seeds from wild grasses . Even more surprising, evidence from the Early Neolithic Funnel Beaker culture (which followed the Ertebølle) suggests that bread was notably absent from their diet despite the presence of cultivated grains; instead, they prepared porridge or gruel 2 4 .

Analysis of human remains from the period reveals that this diverse diet supported remarkably healthy populations. Studies of Stone Age bones show strong skeletal development and excellent dental health with minimal tooth decay, attributable to a diet low in refined sugars and high in coarse, fibrous foods that naturally cleaned teeth . The heavy tooth wear observed on skeletal remains indicates both a coarse diet and the use of teeth as tools in food preparation.

In-Depth Look: A Modern Experimental Approach

While 19th-century researchers laid the foundation, modern scientific techniques have revolutionized our understanding of Stone Age diets. A landmark 2024 study conducted at the Early Neolithic Funnel Beaker site of Frydenlund on the island of Funen demonstrates how cutting-edge methods are challenging long-held assumptions 2 4 .

Methodology: Step-by-Step Scientific Procedure

The international research team employed a sophisticated analytical approach:

  1. Sample Selection: Fourteen grinding stones discovered alongside over 5,000 charred grain kernels
  2. Microremain Extraction: Researchers extracted microscopic plant remains (phytoliths and starch grains)
  3. Comparative Analysis: Recovered microremains compared with reference samples
  4. Use-Wear Analysis: Stones examined for microscopic patterns of wear
Results and Analysis: Surprising Findings

The findings overturned conventional interpretations:

  • No Cereal Residues: Despite abundance of cereal grains, grinding stones showed no evidence of cereal processing 4
  • Wild Plant Processing: Starch grains came exclusively from wild plants
  • Pounding, Not Grinding: Stones used with pounding motions, like mortars 4
  • Pestle Evidence: Rounded pestles found at site support pounding interpretation

Comparison of Expected vs. Actual Findings from Frydenlund Study

Aspect Expected Results Actual Findings
Grinding Stone Use Cereal grinding for flour Processing of wild plants
Cereal Preparation Bread-making Porridge/gruel preparation
Tool Motion Back-and-forth grinding Pounding with pestles
Food Significance Cereals as primary processed food Cereals as one component of diverse diet

This study provides compelling evidence that 5,500 years ago, Neolithic Scandinavians were not baking bread—instead, they were likely preparing porridge or gruel from their grains while using their "grinding stones" to process wild plants 2 4 . This revelation fundamentally changes our understanding of early agricultural food preparation practices in Northern Europe.

The Scientist's Toolkit: Key Research Methods

Modern midden research relies on an array of specialized techniques and analytical tools that enable researchers to extract maximum information from these ancient deposits.

Phytolith Analysis

Identify microscopic plant remains to determine plant processing on tools 2

Starch Grain Analysis

Recognize residue from starchy plants to identify specific plants processed 4

Zooarchaeology

Analyze animal remains to determine species and butchery patterns 5

Radiocarbon Dating

Determine absolute age to date specific layers or finds 1

Stable Isotope Analysis

Reconstruct diet from human bones to understand food sources

Ancient DNA Analysis

Extract genetic material from remains to identify species and relationships

Essential Research Methods in Kitchen Midden Studies

Method/Tool Function Specific Application
Phytolith Analysis Identify microscopic plant remains Determine plant processing on tools 2
Starch Grain Analysis Recognize residue from starchy plants Identify specific plants processed 4
Zooarchaeology Analyze animal remains Determine species, butchery patterns 5
Radiocarbon Dating Determine absolute age Date specific layers or finds 1
Stable Isotope Analysis Reconstruct diet from human bones Understand proportion of marine vs. terrestrial foods

These methods have revealed that the transition from hunting-gathering to farming was far from abrupt in Denmark. The Ertebølle people gradually incorporated agricultural products while maintaining their traditional subsistence strategies, creating a mixed economy that lasted for generations 1 . This challenges the traditional view of a rapid "Neolithic Revolution" and suggests a more complex, gradual transition to agriculture in Northern Europe.

Legacy of the Midden Researchers

The kitchen middens of Denmark continue to be archaeological treasures, offering profound insights into our shared human past.

Historical Foundation

From the pioneering work of 19th-century scientists who first calculated accumulation time and reconstructed food sources

Modern Revelations

To modern researchers using microscopic analysis to challenge assumptions about ancient diets

Rewriting Prehistory

The ongoing research reminds us that prehistory is constantly being rewritten with new techniques

The finding that Neolithic Scandinavians preferred gruel to bread, and that their "grinding stones" were actually used for pounding wild plants, illustrates how much remains to be discovered in these ancient archives 2 4 .

As we continue to study these remarkable sites, we don't just learn about what our ancestors ate—we gain insights into human adaptability, ecological relationships, and the endless creativity of the human spirit. The kitchen middens stand as enduring monuments not only to the Ertebølle people who created them, but to the enduring human drive to understand where we come from, one seashell, bone fragment, and microscopic starch grain at a time.

References